Addressing Human–Monkey Conflict in Nepal: An Evidence-Based Argument for an Integrated Ecosystem Approach

Human–monkey conflict (HMC) represents an increasing socioecological challenge in Nepal’s midhill regions, where agricultural systems and community-managed forests coexist within highly fragmented landscapes. This study reinterprets HMC as an emergent property of a coupled socioecological system shaped by the interaction of habitat degradation, altered resource availability, primate behavioral adaptation, and human land-use dynamics. Drawing on a structured narrative review and concept-mapping approach, we synthesize heterogeneous ecological, behavioral, and socioeconomic evidence into an integrated analytical framework. Findings indicate that current mitigation strategies, including deterrence, physical barriers, and population control interventions (currently at the pre-implementation phase) are largely reactive, labor-intensive, and insufficient to address the structural drivers of conflict. In particular, forest regeneration processes, while increasing overall tree cover, often fail to restore trophic functionality, contributing to a dual-resource system in which anthropogenic food sources remain highly attractive to primates. This dynamics is reinforced by behavioral plasticity, habituation, and social learning in monkey populations, leading to persistent and self-reinforcing conflict patterns. To address these limitations, the study proposes an integrated ecosystem approach (IEA) as a conceptual and operational framework for HMC mitigation. The IEA integrates ecological restoration, behavioral ecology, and governance mechanisms through coordinated interventions targeting habitat functionality, spatial configuration of resources, reduction of anthropogenic food subsidies, adaptive monitoring, and community-based management. By shifting the focus from symptom-oriented mitigation to the modification of the underlying ecological incentives, the IEA aims to provide a more sustainable and scalable pathway for conflict reduction. Although developed within the context of Nepal, the framework has broader applicability to other human–wildlife conflict systems, provided that interventions are adapted to local ecological, agricultural, and institutional conditions. The study contributes to advancing both the theoretical understanding and practical management of HMC by bridging the gap between socioecological systems theory and applied conservation strategies.